Big Bang

Big Bang: 13 billion years ago

All matter and energy in the Universe started out as infinitesimally small point, universe begin 13.8 / 12.5 billion years ago (dependent measurements).

Coalesce: 200 million years after big bang

Hydrogen, etc., cluster. Swinging nebulae of hydrogen and helium. Proto-planetary disk.

Star formation: 800 million years after big bang

Stellar nucleasynthesis; elements up to 26 protons.

Planet Formation: 5 or 6 million years ago

Planet formulation in the solar system. Rings of “planetesimals” form. As gas and particples start to acrete.

Minerals

Yes.

Elements

Pure substance that cannot be separated.

Atom

Smallest piece of element containing basic characteristic: protons + neutrons.

Ion

Non-netural atoms (anion—extra negative charge, more electrons that protons; cation—extra positive charge, less electrons than protons).

Bonds

Bonds forms. Arrange of bonds can determine mineral properties (diamond vs. graphite).

Ionic

When two polarized atoms attract: cation and anions attract

Covalent

When atoms share electrons

Polymorph

Minerals with the same composition but different structures like diamond (hardest material) and graphite (softest.)

When there are linear planes (i.e. each row at a time), its likely an indicator of a Sedementary Rock.

types of crusts

crusts are generally lighter and more felsic than the mantle.

• continental crust two types thickened / normal
• oceanic crusts

continental drift

• animals: things that can’t cross oceans seems to
• glaciers: big rocks scratch a big hole in the bottom, thus being dragged along and draw an arrow towards the direction of movement
• coal: locations of coals are roughly matched up despite them being very far apart

detractors

• Too hard for continents to plow through
• coastline fitting has no mechanism to explain it

palemagnitism

Earth is a doppler field!

Mid-Ocean ridge

asnthenosphere mantle raises up, creating “pillow basalt”. Sulphide small crabs f

outer core

Outer core is liquid

inner core

Inner core is solid

Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent Boundaries

“Hot Plumbs push crust apart”

1. hot plumb below the from the asnthenosphere
2. normal faults start forming
3. earth crust splits apart, became balsaltic material
4. sinks down
5. seafloor spread!

Convergent Boundaries

Ocean-Ocean case

1. Older, colder, denser plate plunges into younger hotter plate
2. Older plate (hard and dense) submerges below the younger plate

This is also why over convergent boundaries the diving plate becomes “deeper” during collisions

earthquake energy

…plate tectonics

body waves

Travel through the earth (travel through rock).

p waves

compressional waves, “primary”. first to arrive. can travel through anything.

s waves

move the ground up and down/side to side.

surface waves

Travel through only through the surface, when body waves hit the surface this happens.

L Waves

left and right; circular path left and right. moves faster

R waves

up and down; particles underground follows a circular path up and down. “ocean waves” back and fourth.